Margaret
Self efficacy and emotional well-being
Potential
for Positive
Developmental
Change
The relationship between physical and emotional
health has come under increasing investigation. The elderly face multiple
physical limitations as well as additional social and emotional losses
as they grow older. Far more attention has been paid to the physical limitations
than to mental and emotional components although findings indicate that
the correlation between physiological and psychological variables increase
with age (Knight, 1991). As we age we increase the opportunities to encounter
major stressors such as relocation, bereavement, onset of various diseases
and other health problems.
Self efficacy and emotional well being
Bandura's work on self efficacy suggests that we lead our lives based on the expectations of others and our own hopes and expectations. If society has a general view of aging as negative and a time of loss and decay, this has considerable impact on the self efficacy or self concept of an older adult. Some older adults do have problems coping with the stressors of age as indicated by the fact that those 65+ make up 11% of the population but they make up 25% of the suicides. Depression is often brought on by feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and not being in control.
There are two major models describing the relationship between social support and health. In the buffering model (indirect) social support protects the individual from the potentially harmful effects of life stress. Social support has been strongly associated with psychological well-being. The higher the level of perceived social support, the less likely a person is to experience anxiety or depression.
A positive outlook is important for resilience. Other characteristics such as perseverance, courage, encouragement, hope and mastery are essential in withstanding and rebounding from adversity. A resilient person can see a crisis or setback as a challenge. Hardships can be seen as instructive and growth producing. Individuals who are able to engage and impact the environments around them for the longest period of time would be judged most successful.
Seligman (1991) has identified optimism as personal source of resistance to known disease factors, and Antonovsky (1979) specifically based his concept of sense of coherence on characteristics of people who were healthy survivors of Nazi concentration camps, in which we know stress factors were maximal and social support minimal. Having skills to identify and express how one feels about distressing experiences is an essential component of the work of Pennebaker (1990) establishing that expression of feelings is an important part of healing. In this case research established that patients recovering from heart surgery that used some form of expression regularly, had faster recovery and were less likely to have a recurrence. Some of the forms of the expression could take were journaling, art, work, or support group.
Coping is the way we think and behave to manage demands. Antonovsky (1979) identifies three major components of coping: rationality, flexibility, and farsightedness.
- Rationality is an accurate assessment of the situation
- Flexibility is the availability of a variety of coping strategies and the willingness to consider them.
- Farsightedness is the ability to anticipate the consequences of our strategies.
- problem-focused: directed at controlling the situation
- emotion-focused: directed at controlling the emotional response to the situation.
Stress and coping theory suggests that people with more coping resources should experience less stress when demands are heavy and be more effective in dealing with those demands. Their relationship resources will be high, they will experience less stress from social stressors because better social functioning results in fewer stressors and because the stress that does occur is less threatening.
Baltes and Baltes' conceptualization of successful aging: focuses on an older person's remaining potential for positive developmental change. The focus on untapped reserve capacity among older persons and their potential for continued development and ability to compensate for loss and decline. They describe this as selective optimization with compensation. Select a smaller number of responsibilities on which to concentrate all efforts. Assert a degree of personal control over the direction of coping efforts. Find ways to optimize performance in selected areas such as devoting more time and practice. It will be necessary to continually compensate for declining competence or stamina, so making use of technology, other people, alternative or smarter strategies. An example of this approach is that of the accomplished pianist Arthur Rubenstein. At 88 years he was asked how he managed to be a good concert pianist. He stated that he maintained a high level concert performance by playing fewer pieces, practicing them more often, and using variations and contrasts in speed to generate the impression of faster play.
Carlsen (199-) suggests that we develop models of creative aging which encourage the personal growth of:
- wisdom and integrity over ignorance and despair
- generativity and care over self-aggrandizement and narcissistic preoccupation
- open-mindedness over rigid, closed thinking
- a willingness to entertain new ideas opinionated self-righteousness
- transcendent relationship over the extremes of either self-absorption or or absorption within the identity of another
- Be curious, ask questions, laugh, and play
- Develop self-confidence, self-esteem, and professional pride
- Value being paradoxical
- Develop intuition
- Practice empathy
- Become increasingly synergistic
- An organization focused on successful aging, the Ulyssean society, encourages people to be deeply involved in activities that stimulate them in a variety of ways but even more particularly in habits of the imagination and the creative use of the mind. Their creed calls upon the person to maintain a "zest for learning," a continually "renewing power of seeking," the "healing joy of laughter," the "redeeming power of serving," a devotion to passionate causes," and the "transforming actions of love."
Acceptance of change in one's life may be the most adaptive coping response. Control over external events may become less important than the need to make uncontrollable events more acceptable to one's values and beliefs.
There are many strategies to assist us in maintaining this resilience. Stress management skills such as exercise, proper nutrition, deep breathing, visualization and mediation are also useful in keeping a positive outlook and a sense of well being. Creative activities such as art, crafts, and writing give a release and expression and often energize us as we connect with the creative flow.
Spiritual practice has been shown to be a major source of support for many older adults. This may be organized religious activities such as church going or more generic expression such as listening to a spiritual program on television or listening to spiritual music. (This is covered in depth in another section).
Baltes, P.B., and Baltes, M. M. (1998). Savoir Vivre in Old Age. National Forum, Spring/ Vol. 78. No. 2, pp. 13-18.
Pennebaker, J.W. (1990). Opening Up: The healing power of expressing emotions. Guilford Press: New York, NY.